History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett
|
History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett |
|
Updated as of 2 October 05 Today in History: On October 2, 1780, Major John Andrι, a British spy associated with Benedict Arnold, was executed on this day in history. Quote of the Day: "In my view we are much worse off now than when we went into Iraq. This is not a partisan position. I voted for these guys." A senior figure at a military-sponsored think tank as told to James Fallows in "Bush's Lost Year" in The Atlantic Monthly (Oct. 2004) Take the Ann Coulter Quiz Where are you politically? Take the Neocon Quiz and find out. "History is Far too Important to be left to History Professors" Teaching isn't such a novel idea
Bibliography:
History of Disease Contemporary Terrorist Organizations Map of Islamic Terrorist Cells in the U.S.A.
|
Alexander II and ReformImperial RussiaFall 2003Impact of the Crimean War The war initially silenced opposition to the Nicholas I. But the impact of the war changed that. What did Russians see? Their army was humbled. Brining further discredit to the regime. Officials now openly questioned policy. Revolts increased among the peasants.Alexander IIs Realization Alexander II kept the crisis in hand. Likewise he realized that reforms were needed. Or Russia would face civil war. Or worse. But he knew that reforms had to come. However, he did not have a plan in hand.Ukaz of March 31, 1856 Alexander announced the treaty. He indicated it could open a new period of hope and tranquility. He also had proposals before him involving serfdom, education, and the legal system.Questions, Questions, and More Questions The serfs would not accept words any more. The nobles wanted to know what he was about to do? Alexander told them: better to abolish serfdom from above than waite till they begin to liberate themselves.Who Was Alexander II? Was he Tsar-Liberator? Was he the Abraham Lincoln of Russia? Was he properly trained for the tasks he faced? But when he took the throne he was 36 and the best educated of the lot. He was also more humane than his father.The First Moves The Ukaz of March 31, 1856, opened the debate. But it took five years before action took place. Much of the delay belonged to Alexander.The Status of the Nobility The nobility saw the need for reform. But they delayed like the Tsar. But they wanted the best for themselves. The questions of the nobility delayed the process. To reach his objective, he had to turn to his liberal ministers.Committees of Nobles These committees of nobles started the process in Jan. 1857. Findings were forwarded to St. Petersburg. There they were reviewed by the Private Committee of the Emperor. Their was a delay because conservatives dragged their feet. In 1858, the Committee was renamed the Main Committee. Alexander pleaded to move quickly.Drafting the Legislation The actual drafting began in 1859. The main spokesmen was Nicholas Miliutin, the Deputy Minister of the Interior. A draft proposal was ready by Oct. 1860. The Conservatives attempted more recommendations. The final proposal was then sent to the Emperor to be discussed in the State Council. The deliberations finally ended on Feb. 27, 1861. Which had to be done by the time of Spring planting.Vote of the State Council Votes were made point by point. Alexander II ordered that the Act would stand as the draft. The final form consisted of the 17 articles and special sections. The full act was known as The Act on the Emancipation of the Peasants from Sefdom. Signed on March 3, 1861. The State Peasants would benefit in 1866.Divisions of Serfs 1.4 Million household sefs. 21 million worked the land. 24.7 were state peasants. 22.4 Million serfs were given their personal liberty. This effectively brought serfdom to an end.More an Involved Process The peasants retain the land they worked. But they could not refuse. The goal was to avoid a class of landless peasants. The nobility was not to be paid for the loss of their serfs, but they would paid for the loss of their land. The payment would be in either money or labor. The peasants would get the beggars quarter and wave their claims to the rest.Paying Their Debt The serfs preferred to make a cash payment. The government provided low interest loans to those who could not pay. The redemption payments would cover 49 years. By 1880, settlements were made on 85% of the land. Most of their land was over valued.The Devil was in the Details The land did not go to the individual. Instead it went to the commune. One could leave the commune and sell their land. While the Emancipation Manifesto ended the peasant/landlord relationship. But it did not end the relationship between the peasant and the commune. The commune was to collect the redemption dues, what was to be grown, and when the land tilled.The Administrative Organ of Emancipation Village commune was the organ. The district/canton government supplement the commune. The local government included assessor, judge, clerk, and elder. Elected by delegates from the villages. The court handled original jurisdiction and handled appeals from the assembly. The goal was to become the self-government for the peasants.Class Status of the Peasants Socially they were at the bottom. There clothes set them apart. Which made them second class. If not lower. Restricted from entering public buildings. And still liable for corporal punishment.Long-Term Consequences Established a free peasantry but could not support themselves. Accelerated the collapse of the nobility. But exposed the nobility as incompetent agronomists. Some tried to become gentlemen farmers. Rural areas continued to decline.General Thoughts Emancipation was just the first step. The improved status of the serfs required strengthening of local government. Nicholas Miluitin adopted many of Speranskys proposals. Miluitin had too many enemies and was replaced byh Peter Valuiev. Valuiev championed the dominance of the nobility.The Zemstvo Law Proposed by Valuiev. Established elected assemblies on the district level. Composed three classes of voters landowners, wealthy townspeople, and peasants. Each class voted separately. The nobility had the edge in numbers. In the first elections 43% nobles, 38% peasants, and 18% from other classes. Zemstvos had no jurisdiction over cities. And only applied to European Russia.Powers of the Zemstvos Authority to impose limited taxes on real estate and business. Work on roads. Local construction. Local welfare. Had no police powers. Liberals thought this would work and lead to other reforms.General Overview Most of the earlier reforms only existed on paper. Earlier on 10% of eligible voters ever voted. A draft reform was ready by 1866. But a conservative reaction forced Alexander II to retract this measure. The Statute of 1870 allowed for suffrage for males who paid taxes. A three-class system was organized according to wealth. The emperor appointed the mayors in Moscow and St. Petersburg.The Duties of Municipal Governments Education. Social Welfare. Public Safety. Limited taxing powers. But not chief political functions.Legal Reforms Alexander realized the old system had to be reformed. So in 1862, work was started on a new legal code. By 1864, the new legal system was introduced on the French system. Which provided for: Open trials. Jury system Independent judiciary. Justice-of-the-peace system to handle petty offenses.Some Weaknesses in the Legal System Did not apply to the peasantry. Juries could not handle cases involving treason. Censorship was an other issue. Partially lifted, but not completely. All books of over ten pages were subject to preliminary censorship. Some books got through like Marxs Das Kapital.Educational Reforms Harsh measures of Nicholas I were repealed. Schools were now open to children of all classes. Religion was no longer a bar to entrance. Autonomy was now restored. Faculties had the authority to control their administrations. Admissions were liberalized. Women were allowed to become teachers.Army Reforms The Crimean war exposed Russia to the necessity of reform of the Army. This was the work of D.A. Miliutin. He was war minister from 1861-1881. Earlier the bulk of the army came from urban poor or peasants. Who served for 25 years. And discipline was harsh.Miluitins Objectives Raise the dignity of service. Improve the quality of the officer corps. Eliminate corporal punishment. Reduce the length of service to sixteen years.Miluitins Reforms Established military schools to train officers. Including specialized schools for the infantry, artillery, and cavalry. Still the nobility monopolized the officer billets. The major change came in 1874 with universal military service. All males eligible for military service at 20. Some were excused or exempted. Following active service, a reserve commitment was required.
|
