History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett
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History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett |
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Updated as of 2 October 05 Today in History: On October 2, 1780, Major John Andrι, a British spy associated with Benedict Arnold, was executed on this day in history. Quote of the Day: "In my view we are much worse off now than when we went into Iraq. This is not a partisan position. I voted for these guys." A senior figure at a military-sponsored think tank as told to James Fallows in "Bush's Lost Year" in The Atlantic Monthly (Oct. 2004) Take the Ann Coulter Quiz Where are you politically? Take the Neocon Quiz and find out. "History is Far too Important to be left to History Professors" Teaching isn't such a novel idea
Bibliography:
History of Disease Contemporary Terrorist Organizations Map of Islamic Terrorist Cells in the U.S.A.
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Background to World War IAge of Total WarFall 2007The World Was Changing The liberal ideal in politics was near an end. The world was now more directly tied by commerce than ever before. Traditional political parties were losing favor. At the expense of single issue groups such as Labor/Socialism. Labor was becoming more militant.Capitalism: The Highest Stage of Imperialism Imperialism took off in the 1870s. It was widely supported by almost everyone. Economic arguments trumped nearly all other concerns. Yet political leaders rarely used the economic argument to justify their actions. In reality they were driven by fear and suspicion.Popularity of Imperialism Nearly all class supported the idea. The working classes thought that they would benefit economically from the imperialist impulses. Socialists stressed the humanitarian component of Imperialism. Socialist leaders were susceptible to the appeals of the imperialists.The Spread of the Imperial Ideal Africa Pacific Islands China Near EastThe Climax of Imperialism The height of Imperialism came between 1895-1905. Spain was defeated by the U.S. during the Spanish-American War. The Italians were crushed by the Ethiopians in 1896 at Adowa. Then Gordon was killed at Khartoum. Followed by the Boer War and the Russo-Japanese War in 1905.Nobody Ever Thought That Russia and France would ever become Allies. Why did that happen? What accounts for that twist of events?It All Started With Otto von Bismarck Bismarck needed a series of alliances to protect Germany from a revengeful France. After the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Out of it grew a series of diplomatic arrangements that isolated France. This worked as long as Bismarck was around. Since one in particular was too confusing and would give the new Emperor, William II the opportunity to make the mistake of a lifetime.Bismarcks Alliance System Dual Alliance (Oct. 7, 1879) -- Between Austria and Germany. Three Emperors League (June 18,1881) - Austria, Russia, and Germany -- If one power found itself at war with a fourth power except with the Ottoman Empire, the others would maintain a friendly neutrality. Triple Alliance (May 20, 1882) - Italy joined the Dual Alliance and maintained links with Vienna and Berlin until 1915. Reinsurance Treaty (June 18, 1887) - Replaced the Three Emperors League and ties Germany and Russia together for five years.The Break Came When Bismarck was dismissed in 1890. Next the Germans notified St. Petersburg that the Reinsurance Treaty would not be renewed when it expired in 1892. The Germans had thought they could get a better deal with the British. This was the high point in Anglo-German relations.The Anglo-German Deal in 1890 The deal was simple Britain gets Zanzibar and Germany gets Helgoland in the North Sea. So the Germans were willing to throw away the traditional Russian alliance. Berlin just thought they could get a better deal from London. Remember this was the high point in Anglo-German relations.Along Comes The French The Germans made a serious tactical blunder. Believing that absolutism and republicanism was like nitro and glycerin, The French had substantial investments in Russia. In 1891 St. Petersburg and Paris agreed on mutual consultations in the event of war. In 1892, upon the urging of Paris, this turned into a military alliance. The fear of all Germans.Impact on Germany In 1892 Count von Schlieffen became Chief of the German General Staff. Initially the plan for war, a two-front war, was to strike quickly in the East. Von Schlieffen reversed the order. France must be eliminated first. For German soldiers. France was the main enemy.The End of British Isolation The British were concerned with France. They have always been concerned with France since Henry II. But Lord Salisbury thought Britain needed a Continental ally to counter France. Many in Germany thought a Anglo-German Alliance was natural. But then William II made another blunder. With the infamous Kruger Telegram.Other Problems with Germany The Germans then made the unmistakable error of challenging the British on the high seas. The Anglo-German rivalry was perhaps the last straw. Forcing the British away from Berlin. Still there were problems with the French. Almost a shot out took place at Fashoda.The Anglo-Japanese Agreement The British were concerned about the drift of world events. Concerned with the French. As well as the Russians moving into Asia. Some of this was part of the Great Game. The result was the Anglo-Japanese Agreement in 1902. Forcing France to rethink her alliance with Russia.Problems for Theophile Delcasse Delcasse realized that Frances main concern was Germany. Why risk a war in the Far East? Something had to be done to resolve those potential problems. One change came when King Edward VII went to Paris in 1903. Setting the stage for the Anglo-French Entente in 1904.A Series of Events that Made War Possible First Moroccan Crisis in 1905. The Germans threatened war in order to discredit France. This strategy failed. It only drove Britain and France closer together. This was followed by the Bosnian Crisis in 1908. Both Russia and Austria had an agreement. Yet both needed a victory. But at the expense of each other. The key players was Izvolsky of Russia and Aehrenthal of Austria. Who had meet at Aehrenthals estate at Buchlau. The Serbs also wanted Bosnia. Both sides nearly came to blows. Followed by the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911.The Military Considerations There was a desire to have allies and a corresponding fear of losing them. Primacy of Generals over Civilians concerning national security issues. Massive arms buildup throughout Europe. Development of offensive military doctrines despite the lethality of the new weapon systems. Soldiers had to be steeled in their desire to attack. Military plans emphasized the attack rather than diplomatic solutions. For the most part wars were fought in the Empire against indigenous peoples. Most the natives lost, but at times they overwhelm the superior firepower of the European forces as they did at the Little Big Horn (1876), Isandlwana (1879), the fate of Charles Chinese Gordon in Khartoum (1885), and Adowa (1896).Some Considerations Concerning Conscription The situation of mass mobilization was made possible because of the Industrial Revolution and long-term impact of the French Revolution. The French Revolution produced the concept of levee en mass. Which created large, highly motivated citizen soldiers. Not necessarily well trained but sometimes called educated bayonets.What Drove Those Men? Patriotic fervor was essential. The Industrial Revolution made it possible for the state to arm them. They were also cheaper than the previously used professional armies of monarchial Europe.The New Conscript Armies All able-bodied men were expected to serve for two or three years. Following their eighteenth birthday. Following the original induction, conscripts could expect an additional call-up later. First as a regular reservist. Then later in a less demanding formations. All told, this could last for twenty years!Perceived Virtues of Conscription Politicians at the time believed that conscription was a common good for the nation. The army would be good for them. Turning wild-eyed youthful troublemakers into solid citizens. Then in some nations, like Germany, well-educated youth would one have to serve one year. Then move into the officer corps.Support For War When war came it was highly popular in Berlin, Paris, Vienna, St. Petersburg, and London. War had a romantic cache to it. Men were ashamed to be seen in civilian clothes. Men volunteered, but slots in the best regiments were often taken. This attitude influence not only the Political Right, but also the Left.Why Was War Popular? People simply forgot about the carnage of war. It had been along time since Europe experienced war. Men wanted to proof something to themselves and their loved ones. War also had a romantic appeal about it. Some theorists believed that Europe needed a good enema to purge the system of corrupt influences. The need to demonstrate manliness.Three Elements That Made World War I Different Mass Armies Fire Power RailroadsIncrease in Weapon Development Breechloaders became the rule rather than the exception. The Germans, for the most part, led the way with the use of the Dreyse Needle Gun during the Franco-Prussian War. During that conflict, for the first time, both sides used breechloaders. More important, they were rifled with lands and grooves. Another addition was the use of smokeless powder. Which made it difficult to spot the infantry on the battlefield.Improvements in Artillery The Germans under the Krupps made similar improvements in Artillery. The Krupps pioneered breach-loading artillery. This was a far better method than the muzzle-loaders. New propellants made the artillery even more effective against not only troops in the field but also against fortifications.Improved Marksmanship The British took the lessons of the Boer War to heart. As a result they became the most proficient European marksmen. The British were armed with the .303 Short Magazine Lee-Enfield Rifle. They were trained to hit a target 300 yards away fifteen times per minute. Many British soldiers actually doubled that rate without loss of accuracy.This was Evident during the Russo-Japanese War Japanese Heavy Howitzers, firing shells weighing 700 pounds blasted Russian fortresses in and around Port Arthur. Engineers attempted to improve fortifications. By adding more dirt and concrete as well as putting in steel cupolas as firing ports. The new explosives made shrapnel even more important.The Machine Gun The first machine guns, at least by the French, were considered artillery pieces. The French version was called the Mitrilleuse and was modeled after the Gatling Gun of the American Civil War. However, there were changes in the offing. The main change came from Hiram Maxim, an American in 1880s.How Important Were Railroads? When Kaiser Wilhelm II summoned Gen. Von Moltke that there should only be war on Russia. Moltke, Chief of Staff, told him the plans were set and they were too complicated to modify. Germany now, because of Railroads and the link to the Schlieffen Plan, made war possible.War Plans Ruled The Russian Plan was simple Invade East Prussia and take the pressure off France. The French Plan 17 was simple Mass and Attack and recover the lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The German Plan was much more complicated and named after the designer Alfred von Schlieffen former Chief of the German General Staff. It involved holding in the East, Massing in the West, invading Belgium and coming around Paris. It was to be war winning, part of the quest for decisive victory.The Keys to Victory Was the Attack. Another was the work of Col de Grandmaison created the furious offensive. The idea was to attack at all costs. Soon this idea spread throughout the French military establishment. Since Ferdinand Foch was the commandant.The Boys Will Be Home by Christmas The General Assumption was the war would be over quickly. Part of that was the public forgot about the horrors of war. Once voice, crying in the wilderness, was Ivan Bloch. Bloch was a Polish Jew and a leading industrialist, wrote The Future of War. He believed that was war was suicidal. Since the European Powers would become bankrupt and ultimately collapse. Leading to revolution and continued upheaval. He was both right and wrong, but he did not live long enough to see the results of his predictions since he died in 1902.According to Ivan Bloch Nations could not handled the wounded. Feed their populations. Develop strategies to supercede the new technologies. Ultimately they would face slaughter on the battlefield. Economic breakdowns. National bankruptcy. Collapse of their social systems. The Old Order would collapse.Wars were Forgotten After the Crimean War and the American Civil War, the only other conflicts were the Wars of Italian and German Unification. With the notable exception of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. The Americans earlier were involved in a conflict with Mexico in 1846-48. Then later again with Spain in 1898. But the Franco-Prussian War did kill as 171,000 French and Germans.The Problem of Succession in Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph was going old. He sat on the throne since 1848. He had no direct heir. Since his son, Crown Prince Rudolph, committed suicide at Mayerling in 1889 with his mistress. Then his wife was assassinated in 1898 by an anarchist. The next in line was Franz Ferdinand.Franz Ferdinand Grievances He was a rather strange bird. He liked to hunt from a train. Failed to marry a woman of his rank. Since he feel in love with a member of the lower nobility. She was forced to endure numerous slights. As a consequence Franz Ferdinand advocated Trialism. Dividing the state into three parts.Franz Ferdinands Plans Divide the Empire into three component parts. With equality for the tree groups. For the the Germans. Hungarians. And Czechs. This caused serious problems for the two principal parties. Then there were the Serbs were were always looking for ways to expand.Bosnia The Serbs viewed Bosnia as rightfully theirs. Part of a Greater Serbia. The Austrians had occupied the province since 1878. Then annexed Bosnia in 1908 setting off the Bosnia Crisis. The situation would get worse when the decision was made to allow Franz Ferdinand to visit Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.Narodna Obrana After the Austrian annexation of Bosnia. Key Serb officials met in Belgrades City Hall to create Narodna Odbrana. Which means National Defense. The goal was to recruit men and train partisans for a potential war with Austria. Satellite groups were formed in Slovenia, Bosnia, and Istria. The Bosnia Group was called the Mlada Bosna (Young Bosnia)Impact of Narodna Odbrana The Narodna Odbrana was so effective stirring up Serbs in Bosnia. Vienna complained in 1909 to put a stop to Anti-Austria propaganda being conducted in the region. From that point, Narodna Odbrana concentrated on propaganda inside Serbia. Trying to fashion itself as a cultural organization. This caused a split with the development of a more sinister organization coming forward.The Coming of the Black Hand Select members of Narodna Odbrana created an even more secretive organization. Dedicated to terrorism. Ten men formed Union or Death. By 1914 there were hundreds of members of Ujedinjenje ili Smrt. They went by the name of the Black Hand. Their objective was to train terrorists for sabotage and political murder.Organization of the Black Hand The goal was to establish a Greater Serbia. Organized into 3 to 5 man cells. Above them were district committees. At the top was a ten-member Executive Committee. Led by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic, Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence. Who went by the name of Apis, which means the Bee.Planning A Crime The Black Hand took over all terrorist operations from the NO. Membership rarely knew what other members were doing. Most of the members were important officials in the Army or Government. Most officials knew what was going on. But the relations changed before 1914.Break With the Serbian Government The Crown Prince Alexander was a key supporter of the movement. But the Black Hand was upset with the position of the Nikola Pasic, the Prime Minister. The Black Hand believed that Pasic was not concerned enough with Pan-Serbism. Saying no to the Black Hand was not a wise move.The Decision to Kill Franz Ferdinand Apis decided to kill the heir to the Austrian throne on his own. Three Bosnian-Serbs were recruited and trained for that mission. Princip, Cabrinovic, and Grabez. They were trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship. To do the job they were smuggled across the border.Black Hand Aspiration The plotters realized that this would invite war with Austria. They thought that Russia would come to their aid. But Russia had let them down before. The Executive Committee ordered Apis to recall the mission. Apis made a half-hearted effort to recall the team. This occurred two weeks before the attempt.The Warnings The trip to Sarajevo was agreed to by the highest levels of the Austrian government. Despite the fact that it came on the anniversary of the Serb defeat at Kosovo Field. Warnings came from Belgrade too. But some in Vienna were not concerned. So, the Archduke traveled to Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The rest was history.
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