History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett
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History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett |
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Updated as of 2 October 05 Today in History: On October 2, 1780, Major John Andrι, a British spy associated with Benedict Arnold, was executed on this day in history. Quote of the Day: "In my view we are much worse off now than when we went into Iraq. This is not a partisan position. I voted for these guys." A senior figure at a military-sponsored think tank as told to James Fallows in "Bush's Lost Year" in The Atlantic Monthly (Oct. 2004) Take the Ann Coulter Quiz Where are you politically? Take the Neocon Quiz and find out. "History is Far too Important to be left to History Professors" Teaching isn't such a novel idea
Bibliography:
History of Disease Contemporary Terrorist Organizations Map of Islamic Terrorist Cells in the U.S.A.
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The Revolutions of 1848 and AfterAge of EmpireSpring 2005The Role of Nationalism in the Revolutions of 1848 One of the common elements was Nationalism. It contributed to both Germans and Italians to seek unification. Allowed for the subject peoples of the Austrian Empire to seek political and cultural autonomy. The Romantic movement had stimulated a nationalistic Renaissance among the Central and Eastern Europe.The Role of Language Czech was on the verge of extinction in the late 18th Century. Especially in the light of the expansion of German. Since many Czechs adopted German as the language of their superiors. By 1848, a Czech linguistic revival was underway. In many ways it was linked to Pan Slavism.What sort of People were the Nationalists of 1848? Where they liberal? Did they understand the feelings of other minorities? No, they were neither generous or liberal toward other national groups.The Role of Liberalism Liberalism was another element in the coming of the Revolutions of 1848. In Eastern and Central Europe, the liberals wanted constitutions to limit the power of their monarchs. They also wanted the liquidation of feudalism and manorial dues. In France the liberals wanted to replace the July Monarchy with a Democratic Republic.What did the French Liberals Want? The French liberals were moving in the direction of socialism. Radicals wanted to guarantee the right to work. This was somewhat revolutionary for the time. What do you think? Why would they feel this way? What was driving the intellectuals to move in this direction?Economic Distress The Blight that attacked the Irish potato also struck the Continent. Food prices rose rapidly. Leading to bread riots. Actual famine in Europe, something that had not happened in modern memory. Then came the collapse of railroads. Untold human suffering occurred. The seeds of Revolution were now set.The State of the Bourbon Restoration Louis XVIII did not want to do anything that would upset the French. He enjoyed being King and did not want to do anything to jeopardize that relationship. He maintained many of the reforms of the Revolution. Including the Bank of France. Funding schools. Accepted the Charter of 1814 which was the basis of the French government until 1830.The Royal Fool Louis XVIII died in 1824. And was succeeded by his bother, the Count of Artois, Charles X. Charles was not concerned with the peoples interests. Nationalism and democracy did not interest him. He was only interested in the expansion of royal absolutism. Then he made a number of tactical mistakes.Failed Policies He promised to compensated the ιmigrιs who fled France. Removed liberal provisions from the Charter of 1814. Punished the sacrilegious. Moved to replace the revolutionary Tricoleur, with the Bourbon standard. The left gained a majority in 1827. Pressuring Charles X. Later he responded by the July Ordinances limited a free press and dissolved the Chamber of Deputies.The Coming of the July Monarchy The new regime was a constitutional monarchy. Something Charles X would not do as he sailed for exile to England. The new king was the Duke of Orleans Louis-Philippe, the Citizen King. This period was known as the July Monarchy. In many ways it was a victory for the bourgeoisie.The Driving Force for Revolution Liberalism check on absolutist governments via constitutions. Nationalism where national groups sought independence from the dynastic regimes of the old order. Classic example would be the Austrian Empire. This is evident in the Greek and the Belgian Revolts.The Origins of the Revolution The economic crisis hit hard in France. Railroad construction came to a near standstill in France. All the industries associated with railroad construction collapsed too. Rising levels of unemployment compounded with low wages angered the workers. The government became totally indifferent to the plight of the poor.Louis Philippes Response to Industrialization After 18 years on the throne, Louis Philippe took only two steps to help the working poor. In 1833 to increase state aid to primary education. In 1841 to restrict child labor. The government really represented only those well connected. They were called the Stockholders, who numbered about 200,000 people.The Governments Response for Reform For those who wanted liberal reforms. The answer was simple. Enrichissez-vous In other worlds, make yourself rich and dont worry. The government now banned labor organizations. Censorship was imposed.Growing Discontent Because of Frances support of Mehemet Ali, the Egyptian Governor who tried to create an empire in the Mediterranean. The leaders of the opposition were Adolphe Thiers, who was out of power, but favored a constitutional monarchy. Another opponents were the disappointed Republicans formed a second opposition. There was also another group, much smaller, the Bonapartists. This movement grew as soon as Napoleons remains were returned to France in 1840.The Political Banquets Starting in the Summer of 1847, Constitutional Monarchs linked up with Republicans to stage a series of political banquets. The meetings called for extended suffrage. And the resignation of Theirs appointment, Guizot. Generally the banquets were peaceful until the one on February 22, 1848 was to be held. Guizot ordered that the banquet was not to be held. The public took to the streets to protest. Louis Philippe dismissed Guizot and was prepared to appoint Thiers. But it was too late since the riots contributed to 50 deaths. On Feb. 24, Louis Philippe abdicated.The Radicals Tried to Fill the Void Like previous revolutions in France, the Radicals tried to fill the power void. The main support for the Radicals came from the working class. The radicals wanted a Republic and extensive economic and social reform. But they had a problem. No clear leader that could articulate their position.Enter the Moderates The moderates controlled the new provisional government. The Moderates were willing to concede universal suffrage. But they were opposed to expanded reforms. The moderates wanted to keep economic and social reforms to a minimum. To appeased the radicals, the moderates bought into the idea of national workshops.National Workshops They were the brainchild of Louis Blanc (1811-82). He initially called them social workshops. They were to be run by the workers themselves. But with the financial assistance of the state. They were sort of a relief project runs along the lines of the military. About 100,000 people. About 10% received 2 Francs a day. The rest received one Franc a day.The First Election and After The universal manhood suffrage aided the Moderates. Yet the Conservative peasants were willing to see the July Monarchy disappear, but dont threaten private property. The bulk of representation came from outside Paris. 100 delegates out of the 900 came from rural France. The radicals could not accept the results and attacked the National Assembly on May 15, 1848. The moderates decided to dissolve the national workshops.Worker Response The workers resisted between June 23-26, 1848 and rose in insurrection. The War Minister, Gen. Louis Cavaignac moved in quickly to crush the workers. There were serious class war overtones from the June Days. From the insurgents we find mechanics, railroad workers, and stevedores. Fear of a social revolution brought lot of support for the government.The Results Over 1,500 were killed. Others were sent into exile to Algeria. All Socialist Clubs and Papers were crushed. Blanc fled to England. The fears of the moderates was seen in the Constitution of the Second Republic (1848-51).The Constitution of the Second Republic Property rights were protected, but not the right to work. Established a powerful president with a powerful legislature. Unicameral legislature elected by popular vote every four years. This was a product of Montesquieus Separation of Powers. The stage was set for a new strongman.The Results of the First Election in December 1848 Cavaignac received 1.5 million votes. Louis Napoleon received 5.5 million votes. Bonaparte had no loyalty to the Constitution or the Republic.Louis Napoleon Bonapartes Problems with the Assembly As President of the Second Republic he had numerous quarrels with the National Assembly. The National Assembly refused to amend the Constitution of 1848. Why? They were afraid of the Socialists and Radicals. It also reduced universal manhood suffrage. Allowed the Prince President to appear as the champion of the persecuted.Setting the Stage for the Coup The Coup was to coincide with the coronation of Napoleon I on Dec. 2, 1804. As well as the anniversary of Napoleons victory at Austerlitz and Dec. 2, 1805. With the help of the Army and with his fellow conspirators he purged the Assembly of his enemies. Then he announced that there would be a popular vote for a new constitution. There was some minor street fighting. This allowed Napoleon to appear as the champion of order. In the ensuing election Napoleon received 7.5 million votes to 640,000 against.Impact of the Coup The future Third and Fourth Republics feared a strong president. Instead the chief executive would be weak until the coming of Charles De Gaulle and the Fifth Republic.Why did the French Vote Yes? The public was weary of the struggles that occurred in France over the last three years. Many were fearful of the specter of Socialism. This was the first time Socialism was used in the West. The glorification of Napoleon has to be taken into account as well. Many more voted yes in memory of the past glory of France.Saving the Pope In 1849, President Bonaparte sent French troops to Rome to defend the Pope against Italian Radicals. But by this time, the Italian Revolution was petering out.Objective of Italian Nationalists The Italian nationalists were weak and divided. Yet they sought to drive the Austrians from Italy. Earlier, Bonaparte offered aid to Piedmont. The Piedmontese responded: Italy will do it alone.The Role of Piedmont One group based in Northern Italy favored Piedmont. The key figure here was Count Cavour, a great admirer of British and French liberalism. He was the editor of Il Risorgimento, which meant in Italian, Resurgence or Regeneration. This name was then applied to the whole unification process in Italy.Objectives of the Neo-Guelfs They wanted the Pope to play a role in unifying Italy from the Austrians, ie., the Germans. The hope was that the Pope would led, but Piedmont would supply the troops. Their goal was to turn Italy into a federation of Italian States. Each would have their own monarch, but with a liberal constitution.Young Italy To be a member you had to be under forty. They believed that Italy should be a Republic. The leader of this group was Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872). He wanted to create an organization more effective than the Carbonari. But he was limited by his own lengthy exile. He modeled other movements in Russia, Germany, Ireland, and Poland.The Events of the Italian Revolution of 1848 The revolt started in January 1848 in Sicily and Naples. Forcing the King Ferdinand II to grant a constitution like the one in France in 1818. This led to similar situations in Piedmont, Tuscany, and the Papal States. Revolts in Lombardy and Venetia and a similar outbreak in Vienna, forcing the resignation of Count Metternich, contributed to the revolt in Milan in March 1848. Venice proclaimed itself the Republic of St. Mark.The Impact on Piedmont In the summer of 1848, Piedmont annexed Lombardy. Followed by Modena and Parma. This raised serious concerns among the other Italian states. Raising fears of Piedmont imperialism. Earlier, the Pope declared that he would be neutral in any war with Austria. The Ferdinand II then revoked the Constitution of 1848, but agreed to go to war with Austria.Austria Strikes Back The Austrians who had experienced the Revolutions of 1848, were looking for an opportunity to strike back. The Austrians then crushed the Piedmontese and their King, Charles Albert, at the Battle of Custozza in July 1848. But events were going to fast for the Piedmontese Monarch. Young Italy then rose in Rome and drove Pope Pius IX to flee Rome. A Democratic Republic was formed under Mazzini in November 1848. The Italian revolutionaries wanted Charles Albert to continue the war against Austria.The Collapse of the Revolutions in Italy Piedmont then faced the Austrians at the Battle of Novara and lost again. Then the Austrians crushed the Republic of St. Mark in August 1849. Earlier, French troops were sent to Rome in order to protect the Pope in July 1849 and remain there until 1871. Liberalism was once again discredit, but there was hope. Only Piedmont defied the Austrians. The Italians would not forget that.Comparisons with the Other Revolutions of 1848 The German Revolutions that occurred in 1848 followed the same pattern as in Italy. Liberalism and Nationalism won the first rounds. But then, Austrian resistance forced the issue.It was Surprising Failure of the German Revolution The Revolution had considerable support from:What did the Liberals Want? They wanted constitutional monarchies throughout the German states. They also wanted to strengthen the German Confederation. They want to put to an end of the repressive hegemony of Austria and Metternich. The hero for the German liberals was King Federick William IV (1840-61).Frederick William IV of Prussia He was an attractive but unstable political figure. Much like 42. He promised much but delivered little.Prussia Makes Efforts at German Unification First the Prussians abolished internal tariffs in 1818. They also applied a uniform tariff schedule on imports. This was the first step in the creation of the Zollverien or Customs Union. By 1844, almost all of Prussias neighbors had joined. Except Austria. It was obvious that Prussia was going to be a key player in the process of unification.It the Appearance of German Unification Victories came quickly in the Western German states. From there the demands followed for constitutions, civil liberties, and a stronger German Confederation. By Mid-March demonstrators put up barricades in Berlin. Frederick William IV accepted some liberal demands. The King appealed for calm, but violence broke out anyway. The rioters then broke into the Royal Palace and forced Frederick William IV to salute the dead.The Collapse of Frederick William IV Overwrought, Frederick William IV gave into the Liberal demands. He summoned an assembly to write a constitution for Prussia. He declared Prussia had merged with Germany. He then proclaimed himself the King of the new German state.The Impact on the German Confederation In May 1848, the Constitutional Convention met in Frankfurt, the capital of the Confederation. The representatives were primarily professionals. Then a debate ensued over the type of Germany they favored. This was difficult since Austria was part of the Confederation. But it did not include Austrias non-German lands. The situation of Austria divided the Confederation.What Sort of Germany? The Confederation was divided into two groups. One group was the Kleindeutschland solution. Which wanted a Germany of only Germans. The other was the Grossdeutschland solution. Or Greater Germany that included Austria. But they forgot their Liberalism over the issue of Prussian Poland.The German Constitution of 1848 It was a Liberal document. A blend of American and British models. The German states were to surrender many of the rights of the Central government. There was to be a bicameral legislature. The lower house was elected by universal manhood suffrage. The upper house by the Land governments. Ministers were responsible to the legislature. The chief executive was the monarch, German Kaiser.The Selection of the German Monarch The Frankfurt selected Frederick William IV of Prussia. But then he did the unbelievable. He refused the throne. Why? Why would he do that? He favored the Austrians. Then the professional classes fled, with the rise of the radicals from the lower social orders.Prussia Gets a Constitution Prussia then had a constitution. One acceptable to Frederick William IV and his advisors. This was the Constitution of 1850. One protecting the rights of upper classes. In time this became the Constitution of Imperial Germany. And continue until 1918.The Architect of a Unified Germany The main figure here was a relatively unknown statesmen. A former diplomat. Who helped resolve a constitutional issue concerning the Prussian Army. A man who said: The great issues of the day are not solved by parliaments and resolutions of majorities, but by iron and blood. Otto von Bismarck.The Fate of the Revolution of 1848 Depended on what happened in Austria. If the Revolution in Austria was successful, then the Revolts in Italy and Germany would have been successful. But Austria waited out the storm. The key for the counterrevolution in Austria were the number of nationalities in the Austrian Empire.The Nationalities of Austria Germans Magyar Czech/Slovak Slovene Croat Serb Polish Ruthenian Rumanian Italian 23% 14% 19% 4% 4% 5% 7% 8% 8% 8%State of the Minorities in the Austrian Empire They were not compartmentalized. Hungary had numerous minoritiesSlovaks, Rumanians, Croats, Serbs, and Germans. The Germans were the merchant class as well bureaucrats.Where was Nationalism supreme? Lombardy and Venetia Bohemia Hungary And the Croats in HungaryThe Situation in Hungary One group wanted to model themselves after Britain. With gradual modernization. Another group was led by Louis Kossuth (1802-94) who was a spellbinding orator. The answer for them was linguistic reform as the first step in cutting the ties with Vienna. But the Magyar nationalists opposed all other nationalists. Greatest threat came from the Croats in the Illyrian provincesThe Role of Liberalism Liberals in Vienna wanted a constitution. Greater civil liberties. Workers wanted a great social program and rights.The Situation in Vienna Vienna opposed all changes. Metternich realized that changes were necessary, but he was checked by the reactionaries. Especially by Francis I (1792-1835) and Ferdinand I (1835-48). Spies and censors kept the public in check.
Metternich claimed that Austria
was administered, but not ruled.
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