History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett
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History Courses For Dr. Christopher C. Lovett |
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Updated as of 2 October 05 Today in History: On October 2, 1780, Major John André, a British spy associated with Benedict Arnold, was executed on this day in history. Quote of the Day: "In my view we are much worse off now than when we went into Iraq. This is not a partisan position. I voted for these guys." A senior figure at a military-sponsored think tank as told to James Fallows in "Bush's Lost Year" in The Atlantic Monthly (Oct. 2004) Take the Ann Coulter Quiz Where are you politically? Take the Neocon Quiz and find out. "History is Far too Important to be left to History Professors" Teaching isn't such a novel idea
Bibliography:
History of Disease Contemporary Terrorist Organizations Map of Islamic Terrorist Cells in the U.S.A.
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The Jew AccusedHolocaustFall 2008The Setting• When people talk of the “rise of the Jews,” it creates a sense of Specter.• An inner conspiracy.• Often the ploy of Anti-Semites.• Yet the growth of a Jewish identity was real.• As well as important.• Since the late eighteenth century, Jews were now experiencing a new equality.• One that allowed them to grow economically.• Thus creating a Jewish middle class in both Europe and America.The Impact on Gentiles• Some welcomed the growth of Jewish middle class.• Others saw it as threat.• But would this rise of the Jews contribute to the rise of militant Anti-Semitism?• Probably.• It is difficult to ignore the rise of the Jews and the increase of modern Anti-Semitism.• This does not mean that Jews themselves were responsible for this trend.The Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism• First of all Anti-Semitism is irrational.• But how was it done?• Why was it so persuasive?• The new Anti-Semites practiced a blend of fantasy and reality.• As well as crude caricatures and popular portrayals of Jews.• The new Anti-Semites would claim that they opposed Jews for “real” racial reasons.• Not bigoted religious ones.What Gave Anti-Semitism Any Validity?• The new science of eugenics.• Sometimes called “racial science,” which allegedly exposed the dangers of the “Semitic Race.”• This blended in with the fears of the middle class who now felt challenged by European or American Jews who “threatened their sphere.”• Some were now attracted to the issue of the “Jewish Question.”• And which became a all-consuming occupation.• As a result, Jews were perceived as “taking over the world.”The Fringe Element• For the most part, those people that harbored those views were the fringe element.• Most educate elites sympathized with Europe’s Jewish population.• The liberal left saw the Jews as useful allies in instituting a liberal political agenda in their nation.• Some very wealthy Jews identified with the forces of privilege.The Liberal Agenda• By aligning with Europe’s liberal faction, Jews now became a target.• Because the Liberal Left had enemies.• Most of those whom historians have called “anti-Semites” fall into a wide range of categories.• Least of which were those who considered Jews to be “deicides.”• But anti-Semitism came in many different shades and hues.The Rise Comes in Stages• The rise paralleled stages in modern history.• The liberal period was the age of the rise of a Jewish bourgeoisie.• While some Jews became more wealthy, others became more poor.• Especially with the rise of Marxism and a new social awareness.• The real rise followed the desire of many Jews to enter the Gentile world.• A world in which they were invited in by Gentiles.• When this happened, new tensions, political tensions, emerged.The Move Toward Mass Politics• The hostility to Jews has a long history.• But the real virulent strain came in the final quarter of the nineteenth century.• What made this possible?• Industrialism• Populism.• Nationalism.• Decline of religion.• And the rise of modern urban centersThe Major Change in Anti-Semitism• There was a move away from traditional-based Anti-Semitism.• Now the new course was following a racial strain.• That Jews were a “harmful race.”• Modern Anti-Semites claim to “hate Jews” for “real reasons.”But What Were Those “Real” Reasons?• Exploiting or cheating non-Jews.• Taking Jobs from non-Jews.• Gaining control over the stock market.• The press.• And even the state itself.• The very term “Anti-Semitism” was coined in the 1870s.• The new political parties, appealing to the lower social orders for votes often made those appeals.• Especially those that had a mass political appeal.Modern Mass Politics• This process refers to the new political trends found in the late nineteenth century.• Especially focusing on new democratic-populist impulses.• Often Socialist in scope.• This was a break from the elitist trends in the U.S.A and Europe in the 1850s, 1860s, and even the early 1870s.• None of them seized power in Europe or the U.S.A, but they had a new energy not seen beforeThe Presence of The New Mass Political Parties• Generally they differed from country to country.• The U.S. led the way while was Russia was at the back of the pack.• But in Russia, where there were mass political political parties, Jews played a crucial role.• Especially with the Social Revolutionaries, Bolsheviks, and Mensheviks.• Why was that?Jews in America and Russia: A Case Study• In the U.S.A Jews were accepted as citizens.• There was no major complaint concerning Jews in the political mainstream.• There were no major Anti-Semitic movements as of yet.• In Russia, the State and general citizenry saw Jews as a foreign element.• Jews never received a fair shake under the Old Regime in Russia.• In Germany, for instance, this was not the case either.The Rise of Anti-Liberalism in Europe• Most of this was a direct outgrowth to the “free market philosophies” of the 1850s and 1860s.• Particularly the Panics that ensued from the 1870s thru the 1890s.• Most of this was traced to financial collapses where Jews were indirectly involved.• Especially since Jews were linked to the Stock Markets.The Populists and Anti-Semitism• The Populist blamed the Jews for their problems.• Since they controlled capital.• But this is a far from blaming Jews.• Why did they do this for?• The Rothschilds.• The stereotypes of Jewish wealth.• But falls far short of the the political anti-Semitism.Rising Unemployment in the Late 19th Century• Anti-Marxist Christian Social Parties attracted the urban working class.• These parties questioned the new economics of free trade and free market economies.• As a result they attacked Jews because of their position in the economy.• The difference between the anti-Semitic parties and the Christian Social Parties was very elusive.• But Anti-Semitic parties attempted to prove that they were different.Traditional Anti-Semitism and the New Anti-Semitic Parties• These groups tried to distance themselves from the traditional Anti-Semites who hated Jews for the death of Christ.• The new Anti-Semites called themselves modern because they disliked Jews because of other reasons.• They felt that if you get rid of the Jews, all the social evils would disappear.• This would require stripping them of their economic power and denying them of their civil rights.General Observations• Anti-Semitism in the 19th and 20th Centuries is associated with:• The Urban-Petty Bourgeois.• Lower-Middle Class.• Primarily found in Western and Central Europe.• With the notable exception of Eastern Europe, where Anti-Semitism was common at all levels of society.• Small shopkeepers disliked Jews because of the competition that felt with the rise of department stores.Wilhelm Marr (1819-1904) and Racist Anti-Semitism• He was one of the first to organize the lower middle class to attack Jews.• He actually coined the term Anti-Semitism in the 1880s.• And wrote the first Anti-Semitic bestseller, The Victory of the Jews over Germany, in 1879.• Instead attacking Jews on religious grounds, he used race instead.The Spread of Anti-Semitism in Europe• The new form of Anti-Semitism was Europe-wide.• German theorists, such as Marr and Eugen Duhring (1833-1921) are credited with leading the way.• Marr won credence because of the reputation of German scholars, even though he was not one himself.• Even the popular German historian, Heinrich von Treitschke (1834-96), while supporting civil equality for Jews, believed that the Jews “had gone far enough.”• He did coin the term, “The Jews are our misfortune.”The Spread of Anti-Semitism in Germany• The Chaplin to Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II was an Anti-Semitic.• This was Adolf Stocker (1835-1909).• He stressed the “Social Question is the Jewish Question.”• In so many words, Stocker believed that Jews were responsible for greed, corruption, etc. in Germany.The Growth of the “Berlin Movement”• It was an attempt to rally all Anti-Semitic groups in Germany to work together.• They sought to have the government to pass a series of Anti-Semitic legislation.• One method was an Anti-Semitic petition.• At first, Bismarck thought that they were stronger than they actually were.• But what did they want?Goals of the Berlin Movement• Restrict Jewish immigration to Germany.• Exclude Jews from position of authority in Germany.• Keep Jews from serving as teachers in German schools.• Create a special census to keep track of German Jews.Spreading to Austria• This also spread to Austria too.• Where there were even more Jews than in Germany.• For instance, Vienna’ Jewish population grew from 6,000 in 1860 to 40,000 in 1870 to 175,000 by 1910.Differences Between Jews in the Industrial and Undeveloped Worlds• There were many differences between the assimilated Jews of France, Germany, Britain, and the U.S.A.• And those called the Ostjuden.• From Eastern Europe.• They spoke Yiddish.• Many were barely making it and were pushed to starvation.• Plus they came from the fastest growing Jewish centers.• Often found in the East.The Economic Situation Drives Then West• Most Slavic peoples feared the increase in the Jewish population.• Jewish youth now questioned the values of their elders.• They were more willing to leave.• They also challenged traditional Jewish authority too.• Likewise, many Gentile employers would not hire Jews for various reason.• Jews would not work in certain fields for specific reasons.• Sometimes dietary.The Impact of the Exodus• This was one of the major migrations in modern history.• This caused friction between Jews and Gentiles in both Western Europe and America.• While Jews were arriving from the East in small numbers throughout the nineteenth century, the situation escalated between late 1870s through the early 1880s.• Causing an escalation in tensions between the two groups.What Was the Fin de Siecle?• There were many changes taking place throughout Europe and the America.• In England this was the Edwardian era, in France it was Belle Epoque, or beautiful epoch in France, and in America it was the dawn of the Progressive era.• Yet it also marked a rise in the disenchantment in the liberal ideal due to the economic crisis in West.• By the 1890s anti-intellectual and antirational trends became quite common.• Plus there was an irrational level of competition that was seen in “yellow journalism,” militarism, establishment of alliance systems.• The world was heading for a nervous breakdown.But Things Were Happening…Making the World Uneasy• Germany, only recently unified, wanted their place in the sun.• This worried Germany’s neighbors.• The Social Democrats in Germany regained their former position following the all of Bismarck.• Likewise there was an diplomatic rapprochement between France, Russia, and Britain.Anti-Semitism was on the Rise in Germany• The changing world made many uneasy.• Soon those feelings turned against the Jews.• Some considered this a “gathering storm” against the Jews.• While many Jews basked in the glory of the new Germany.• The new Anti-Semitic parties attacked them.• Some historians believe that Anti-Semitism was in hibernation.• When in reality it had already sunk in with the German public.The Situation in Austria• Overt forms of Anti-Semitism were evident in Austria as well.• Anti-Semitism associated with the Christian Socialists gained credence with the election of Karl Lueger (1844-1910) as Mayor of Vienna.• Just as Anti-Semitism was growing in France during the Dreyfus Case and Russian Pogroms were about to break out.• Lueger as Mayor promised to break the power of the Jews in Vienna.Hitler’s Anti-Semitism Starts Now• The future fuhrer claimed that he was greatly influenced by Georg Ritter von Schonerer (the gentile Anti-Semite) and Karl Lueger.• Reading cheap books and seeing the Ostjuden in the Imperial Capital no doubt influenced him.• Perhaps some one befriended him or was their something more sinister?But These Orators Were Found…• In America too.• Especially as more Jews began to arrive from Eastern Europe.• Even William Jennings Bryan talked of common Americans “being crucified” by the malefactors of great wealth on a cross of gold.• What would it take for those emotions to get out of hand.General Observations• Generally, Jews throughout Europe and the Middle East were being accused of ritual murder.• This falls under the heading of “the blood libel.”• Or Jews were being perceived as part of the conspiracy of “international Jewry.”• This charges began to pick up speed starting in 1840, first in Damascus.The Earlier Jewish Affairs• The Damascus Affair (1840) – An Italian priest disappears and his fellow friars claim that he was killed by the Jews for ritual purposes.• The Tiszaeszlar Affair (1882-83) – During Easter in 1882, a Christian fourteen-year-old disappeared with charges of ritual murder.• These would set the stage for the future events later in the century.The Dreyfus Case• First of all, this was more than a trial.• It all began in 1894 when French Military Intelligence concluded that there was a German spy in the French High Command.• The French came across a document known as the “Bordereau” or “List” of documents for sale.• With a rise of Anti-Semitism in France, a decision was made to arrest Capt. Alfred Dreyfus.The Division of France over the Dreyfus Case• Dreyfusards – Those who felt that Dreyfus was innocent.• Anti-Dreyfusards – Those who believe that he was guilty.• The division of France over Dreyfus would continued up to the outbreak of World War I.The Accused• Dreyfus could not bring himself to accept the mantle of a Jewish “martyr.”• He just didn’t think it was possible that he was singled out because of his religion.• His fellow officers did not rush to his defense either.• French military intelligence wanted the case to “go away” since they were humiliated by failing to discover the spy in the first place.• The trial began in Dec. 1894 and was not strong against him, still he was found guilty.• And sent to Devil’s Island to rot.Then Questions Arise• But there were some he thought the case was too pat.• One was the new commander of French MI, Col. Georges Picquart.• He was mystified by the case, even though he thought Dreyfus was guilty.• But he was also concerned about another officer, Commandant Walsin Esterhazy.• Especially when he compared the handwriting of the Bordereau to that of Esterhazy.Picquart Brings A Case Against Esterhazy• Many in the French military establishment could not accept that Dreyfus was innocent.• They also thought that the case against Esterhazy was so weak, Picquart’s superiors allowed Esterhazy to be tried.• On January 10, 1898, Esterhazy was found “not guilty.”• Esterhazy was now a “national hero.”J’Accuse!• The Dreyfusards were crushed by the verdict.• But a daring and reckless act saved the day.• On Jan. 13, 1898, Emile Zola published the most famous editorial in Modern European History – J’Accuse!• Zola pulled out the stops and accused the government of suppressing evidence.• The power of Zola came from his popularity as a writer and his stature with the Catholic Right.• But he breath life into the case.The Truth Comes to Light• Soon evidence appears that evidence was doctored to prove Dreyfus’s guilt.• Soon confessions were made to exonerate Dreyfus.• Even with this new evidence, man Anti-Dreyfusards still believed that Dreyfus was still guilty!• Those feelings would undermine the French Army until World War I.Situation for Jews Beyond the Pale• Nicholas II believed that there was a worldwide Jewish conspiracy.• Pogroms continued throughout Russia both before and after the Revolution of 1905.• One of the most egregious was the Kishinev Pogrom in April 1903, where forty-five Jews were murdered, five hundred injured, many women were raped, and over 1,500 homes and shops destroyed.• The situation was not going to get better.The Beilis Affair• On May 19, 1911, a body of a small child was found.• The Anti-Semites then charged that this was an example of ritual murder.• The accused was Mendel Beilis, a manager of a small brick factory.• Soon, a worldwide effort to exonerate Beilis was underway.• And was found innocent in Oct. 1913.Then There Was the Case of Leo Frank• The Leo Frank occurred in Atlanta, the “city too busy to hate.”• On April 27, 1913, fourteen-year-old Mary Phagan was brutally murdered in the basement of the American Pencil Factory.• Soon the media called for speedy action.• In a rare event, an African American testified against a Caucasian.• His name was Jim Conley.The Fate of Leo Frank• Frank was convicted and sentenced to death.• His wife championed his case and his sentence was computed to life by Gov. Frank Slaton.• But his was not enough.• A group of twenty-five well-to-do citizens stormed into a prison hospital where Frank was recovering from having his throat slashed.• Then taken out an lynched near Marietta, GA on August 17, 1915.• In 1986, Frank’s case was issued a pardon by the State of Georgia.
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